Homeópatas Latinoamericanos / Latin American Homeopaths

Un breve repaso por la historia de la Homeopatía, así como los antecedentes históricos de su llegada a los distintos países de América Latina, sirve como preámbulo para hablar de la Asociación Homeópatas Latinoamericanos, conformada por un extenso grupo de médicos que se ha convertido en una referencia académica de gran relevancia. Los miembros de este club, al cual pertenecen 523 personas, intercambian con sus pares información de la historia de la Homeopatía y aprenden bases conceptuales de las diferentes escuelas, al mismo tiempo que discuten aspectos ligados a las Materias Médicas y la repertorización. El foro permite, asimismo, conocer de múltiples casos clínicos de éxito, así como las diferencias y equivalencias en las escalas de dilución en muchos países del mundo.

A brief review of the history of Homeopathy, as well as the historical background of its arrival in the different countries of Latin America, serves as a preamble to talk about the Association of Latin American Homeopaths, made up of a large group of doctors that has become an academic reference of great relevance. The members of this club, to which 523 people belong, exchange with their peers information on the history of Homeopathy and learn conceptual bases of the different schools, while discussing aspects related to Medical Subjects and repertorization. The forum also allows for multiple clinical success stories, as well as differences and equivalencies in dilution scales in many countries of the world.

Referentes históricos de la medicina natural y tradicional para la formación del residente de medicina interna / Historical references of natural and traditional medicine for training the internal medicine resident

Durante la última década, en numerosos países, entre ellos Cuba, se revisan los enfoques y las metodologías que se han utilizado para formar a los médicos especialistas. Al respecto, en el presente artículo se evalúan los referentes histórico-lógicos que fundamentan el uso de la medicina natural y tradicional para el desempeño profesional del residente de medicina interna. Asimismo, se describen las diferentes etapas por las que ha transitado la implementación de las terapias naturales y tradicionales en Cuba y cómo se ha fortalecido dicho arsenal terapéutico desde el punto de vista teórico-práctico.

During the last decade, diverse countries among them Cuba, are reviewing approaches and methodologies being used to train the specialist doctors. On this regard, historical and logical references which give bases to the natural and traditional medicine are evaluated in this work, for the professional skills of the internal medicine resident. Likewise, the different stages through which the natural and traditional therapies have developed in Cuba, and how this therapeutic group have been strengthen from the theoretical and practical point of view are described.

Nomen Est Omen: Medical and Pharmaceutical Occupations in Slovenian Family Names

The heritage of Slovenian house names and surnames reflects, among others, the former medicine and pharmaceutical occupations, midwifery, and folk medicine practices, and besides that, also health status and illnesses of people. Surnames, which are especially strongly intertwined with family, local and social history, are closely related to folk medicine and magic. Unlike house names (vulgo), which are the usual nicknames for physical and mental characteristics and abilities, surnames denote medical occupations and medicinal folk practice as such. According to the most recent data (as of January 1, 2020) of The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, at least 40 surnames reminiscent former medical or pharmaceutical professions. These newly discovered digital data in open access are precious for the history of medicine because they allow comparing surnames geographically, by frequency, and through the time.

[A historical review of general medicine].

The first official general medicine was established in the United States, and society of general medicine established in 1947. After that the European and American countries began to study of general medicine and construct system. In 1966, the commonwealth launched the first global residency training program in general medicine.At present, many countries have formed a perfect general practitioner training system. In 1988, the concept of general medicine was introduced into China. In 1989, the Chinese Medical Association established the General Medicine Education Committee, marked the beginning of general medical education in China. In 1993, General Medicine Branch of Chinese Medical Association was set up, was a symbol of the birth of general medicine in China. Compared with some European and American countries, China's general medicine was a late starter, and the training of general practitioners has experienced the development of diversification, at present, it is in line with the international training mode.

"Something Wasn't Clean": Black Midwifery, Birth, and Postwar Medical Education in All My Babies.

Set in rural Georgia, the 1953 health film All My Babies: A Midwife's Own Story was a government-sponsored project intended as a training tool for midwives. The film was unique to feature a black midwife and a live birth at a time when southern health officials blamed midwives for the region's infant mortality rates. Produced by the young filmmaker George Stoney, All My Babies was praised for its educational value and, as this article demonstrates, was a popular feature in postwar medical education. Yet as it drew acclaim, the film also sparked debates within and beyond medical settings concerning its portrayal of midwifery, birth, and health care for African Americans. In tracing the controversies over the film's messages and representations, this article argues that All My Babies exemplified the power and limits of health films to address the complexities of race and health during an era of Jim Crow segregation.

A concorrência na arte de partejar na cidade do Rio de Janeiro entre 1835 e 1900 / Competition in the arts of midwifery in the city of Rio de Janeiro from 1835 to 1900

Resumo Este artigo discute a concorrência entre parteiras e médicos na oferta dos serviços de partos na cidade do Rio de Janeiro entre 1835 e 1900. Foram analisadas as atas da congregação, os livros do curso de partos e de termos de exames de verificação de médicos, cirurgiões, boticários e parteiras da Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro, além de anúncios e propagandas de médicos e parteiras nas colunas "Anúncios" e "Indicações Úteis" do Jornal do Commercio . Observa-se como o aumento do número de médicos-parteiros e seus discursos científicos contribuíram para que as parteiras se vissem obrigadas a diversificar a clientela, instalando-se e atendendo em áreas populares e inóspitas.

Abstract The article discusses competition between midwives and doctors offering birth-related services in the city of Rio de Janeiro from 1835 to 1900. The research analyzed minutes from meetings, textbooks on births, and terms from qualification examinations for physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, and midwives at the Rio de Janeiro Medical School (Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro), as well as announcements by and advertisements for doctors and midwives in columns featuring advertisements and useful recommendations in the Jornal do Commercio newspaper. An increase in the number of delivery physicians, and their scientific discourses led midwives to feel an obligation to diversify their clientele, consequently establishing themselves and working in lower-class and inhospitable areas.

Mirza Ali Hamedani: An Influential Physician in the Qajar Period, Iran.

The knowledge of medicine underwent a revolution in the Qajar period, especially during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (1831-1896 AD). The dispatch of students to Europe, establishment of Dar ul-Funun, Hafez al-Seheh Assembly, and clinics, entrance of European teachers and physicians to Iran, approval of medical rules by the parliament, introduction of a new therapeutic style, and translation of medical textbooks into Persian were some of the changes that occurred during this period. As a result, modern medicine influenced the Iranian-Islamic traditional medicine. An educated Iranian physician, Mirza Ali Doctor Hamedani was one of the physicians of this period, who traveled to France, studied the European medicine and considerably contributed to the evolution of the modern medicine along the traditional medicine. The present manuscript describes the scientific personality and contributions of this physician to the science of medicine.

[The investigation on the historical remains related to medical, healthy and hygienical activities in Zhejiang].

Aiming to protect and utilize the historical remains related to medical, healthy, and hygienical activities, we have to get the information of those remains. From 2003 to 2018, we investigated and documented those remains before 1949 by checking various literatures, archives, and collected the information supplied by the traditional Chinese medicine practitioners and scholars. Total remains 167 recorded and documented as following: historical event remains 17; temple and shrine 12; medical institutions remains 43; research institutions remains 2; traditional Chinese medical factory remains 1; western and traditional Chinese medicine stores 15; western and Chinese medical education institutions remains 5; famous medical person residence remains 16; tombs 14; inscription 7; sites of wells 35, also including 1950s historical remains 2.

A Study on the Korean Medicine Education and the Changes in the Traditional Korean Medicine during the Japanese Colonial Era: Focused on the Korean Medicine Training Schools.

The modern education institutes play an important role in fostering professional talents, reproducing knowledge and studies, and forming the identities of certain academic fields and vocational communities. It is a matter of common knowledge that the absence of an official Korean medicine medical school during the Japanese colonial era was a severely disadvantageous factor in the aspects of academic progress, fostering follow-up personnel, and establishment of social capability. Therefore, the then Korean medicine circle put emphasis on inadequate official education institutes as the main factor behind oppression. Furthermore, as the measure to promote the continuance of Korean medicine, the circle regarded establishing civilian Korean medicine training schools as their long-cherished wish and strived to accomplish the mission even after liberation. This study looked into how the Korean medicine circle during the Japanese colonial era utilized civilian training schools to conduct the Korean medicine education conforming to modern medical school and examined how the operation of these training schools influenced the changes in the traditional Korean medicine. After the introduction of the Western medical science, the Korean medicine circle aimed to improve the quality of Korean medicine doctors by establishing modern Korean medicine medical schools. However, after the annexation of Korea and Japan, official Korean medicine medical schools were not established since policies were organized centered on the Western medical science. In this light, the Korean medicine circle strived to nurture the younger generation of Korean medicine by establishing and operating the civilian Korean medicine training schools after the annexation between Korea and Japan. The schools were limited in terms of scale and status but possessed the forms conforming to the modern medical schools in terms of education system. In other words, the civilian training schools not only adhered to the standard education of Korean medicine but also aimed to lay their foundation in the education system of the Western medical science by forming the separated curriculum including basic medical science, diagnosis, clinic, drug, and the practice of acupuncture and moxibustion. Furthermore, having contained the basic subjects of the Western medical science - physiology, anatomy, pathology, etc. - in the compulsory subjects shows perceiving the intellectual and systematic hegemony of the Western medical science and satisfying the demand of the colonial power. Such an education system was succeeded and solidified through the training sessions and the training schools operated by the local colonial governments after the 1930s. Korean medicine became different from the traditional Korean medicine through the establishment and the operation of such training schools.

The History of Medical Education in Europe and the United States, With Respect to Time and Proficiency.

In this article, the authors present a historic overview of the development of medical education in the United States and Europe (in particular the Netherlands), as it relates to the issues of time (duration of the course) and proficiency (performance requirements and examinations). This overview is necessarily limited and based largely on post hoc interpretation, as historic data on time frames are not well documented and the issue of competence has only recently been addressed.During times when there were few, if any, formal regulations, physicians were primarily "learned gentlemen" in command of few effective practical skills, and the duration of education and the competencies acquired by the end of a course simply did not appear to be issues of any interest to universities or state authorities. Though uniform criteria gradually developed for undergraduate medical education, postgraduate specialty training remained, before accreditation organizations set regulations, at the discretion of individual institutions and medical societies. This resulted in large variability in training time and acquired competencies between residency programs, which were often judged on the basis of opaque or questionable criteria. Considering the high costs of health care today and the increasing demand for patient safety and educational efficiency, continuing historic models of nonstandardized practices will no longer be feasible. Efforts to constrain, restructure, and individualize training time and licensing tracks to optimize training for safe care, both in the United States and Europe, are needed.

[Competition in the arts of midwifery in the city of Rio de Janeiro from 1835 to 1900]. / A concorrência na arte de partejar na cidade do Rio de Janeiro entre 1835 e 1900.

The article discusses competition between midwives and doctors offering birth-related services in the city of Rio de Janeiro from 1835 to 1900. The research analyzed minutes from meetings, textbooks on births, and terms from qualification examinations for physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, and midwives at the Rio de Janeiro Medical School (Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro), as well as announcements by and advertisements for doctors and midwives in columns featuring advertisements and useful recommendations in the Jornal do Commercio newspaper. An increase in the number of delivery physicians, and their scientific discourses led midwives to feel an obligation to diversify their clientele, consequently establishing themselves and working in lower-class and inhospitable areas.

Este artigo discute a concorrência entre parteiras e médicos na oferta dos serviços de partos na cidade do Rio de Janeiro entre 1835 e 1900. Foram analisadas as atas da congregação, os livros do curso de partos e de termos de exames de verificação de médicos, cirurgiões, boticários e parteiras da Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro, além de anúncios e propagandas de médicos e parteiras nas colunas "Anúncios" e "Indicações Úteis" do Jornal do Commercio . Observa-se como o aumento do número de médicos-parteiros e seus discursos científicos contribuíram para que as parteiras se vissem obrigadas a diversificar a clientela, instalando-se e atendendo em áreas populares e inóspitas.

[Medical education in China in early Republic of China and Japan].

In 1912, with reference to the educational system of Japan, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China issued the Regulation of Medical College, and established the first national medical institution of higher medical education, the Peking Medical Special College. Thereafter, public institutions of Medical Special School were also set up by some local government, such as Jiangsu and Zhejiang, etc. These public and national special medical schools and colleges were all established by the returned medical students studying in Japan, and they copied the model of Japanese medical education, including using the curricula of medical college of Japan, employing Japanese teachers, translating Japanese textbooks and buying Japanese experimental samples and apparatuses, all followed the Japanese models. In a manner of speaking, taking Japan as the template, educational system of western medicine was established in China in early Republic of China. In 1923, learning from that of the United States, a new educational medical system was set up, the medical education in China was further in line with the world.

La tecnología en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de las ciencias médicas / Technology in the teaching-learning process of medical sciences

El desafío planteado en este tema, abarca diferentes puntos de vista, por un lado, involucra a la historia de la medicina y por otro, concierne todo lo relacionado con la enseñanza de esta ciencia. Al referirnos a la historia de la medicina, debemos remontarnos a la humanidad en diferentes culturas y civilizaciones, donde observamos rastros de pacientes, con probables patologías traumáticas, infecciosas y hasta signos de procedimientos quirúrgicos, realizados hace más de cinco mil años. En ese momento, es muy probable, que aquellos tratamientos que hayan tenido buenos resultados, basados en rezos, uso de plantas medicinales, sacrificios, hayan sido transmitidos a las siguientes generaciones, como modelos terapéuticos, dando origen a la enseñanza de la medicina personalizada, centrada en el análisis y resolución del problema.

Health during the Cardenismo (1934-1940). / La salud durante el Cardenismo (1934-1940).

The present symposium, Health during the Cardenismo (1934-1940), consist of four studies: Medical sanitary aspects in Mexico by Martha Eugenia Rodríguez; Campaigns against diseases by Carlos Viesca Treviño; Hospitals during Cardenism by Guillermo Fajardo Ortiz; and Military medicine in Mexico by Antonio Moreno Guzmán. Through them is given an integral vision of the state of health and illness during the administration of General Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, the first sexennial presidential government of the twentieth century. Several aspects are discussed, among them, the President's nationalist policy which led to an important distribution of land to the peasants. His education policy originated, among other things, the creation of the National Polytechnic Institute that framed two medical schools, the National Homeopathic Medicine and the Superior of Rural Medicine. The social service for medical interns of the UNAM was created. On the other hand, General Cárdenas placed special emphasis on preventive and care medicine. In addition to organizing campaigns against multiple diseases, including pox, typhus, tuberculosis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases, special attention was given to maternal and child care. An urgent problem was that of malnutrition, so special care was taken in the child and peasant population. Likewise, in order to attend to morbidity, in the period 1934-1940, general and specialty hospitals were set up under government, private, military, and private charitable institutions. The last study that is presented refers to the military health modernization initiatives initiated by General Cárdenas, that had repercussions on the health of the military and its successors.

[Commentary on self-compiled teaching materialsby Singapore Chinese Physician Training College].

The Singapore Chinese Physician Training College has been playing a role in the development of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the training of TCM talents in modern and contemporary Singapore not to be ignored. Due to the limitations of the objective condition, the College had to creatively compile by themselves 115 volumes of teaching materials with rather complete subjects, which did pay attention to applying theory to practice, ran through the thought of Chinese integrating with western medicine, and is of literature and cultural significance.As a carrier of educational contents and methods, these teaching materials not only embodied the educational idea of the editor, but also reflected the status of TCM development in modern Singapore.

[Brief history of education of Mongolian medicine 1947-1977].

From 1947 to 1977, the education of Mongolian medicine was developed to a certain degree, in different levels and different forms with attribute of modern education. Through opening training school and class, the traditional Mongolian practitioners and its education are standardized and its levels elevated. In addition, by means of medical colleges and health schools, Mongolian medical talents of different types at different levels were cultivated. All of them were at the forefront of the development of Mongolian medicine later. In 1958, the first undergraduate education, a Department of Sino-Mongolian Medicine was set up in Inner Mongolia Medical College, marking the development of beginning of the higher education of Mongolian medicine. Therefore, Mongolian medicine was the forerunner of higher education of Chinese minority medicine.

[Research on Yi yu (Medical Education), a professional journal on medical education during the period of Anti-Japanese War].

Founded in October, 1935, Yi yu (Medical Education) was the first professional journal of medical education in China. Unlike other medical journals, Yi yu had strong official background. It was sponsored by the Medical Education Committee of Ministry of Education of the National Government, whose chief editor, editors and authors were mostly authoritative scholars. Its publication time was 1935-1941, and was once an important basis reflecting the development levels and results of Chinese medicine during the Anti-Japanese War, introspecting Chinese medicine education, spreading medical knowledge. From a side, its creation and development reflected the interaction between the journals of science and technology and Chinese society from middle of the 1930s to early 1940s.

Yesterday's Doctors: The Human Aspects of Medical Education in Britain, 1957-93.

In the wake of the Second World War there was a movement to counterbalance the apparently increasingly technical nature of medical education. These reforms sought a more holistic model of care and to put people - rather than diseases - back at the centre of medical practice and medical education. This article shows that students often drove the early stages of education reform. Their innovations focused on relationships between doctors and their communities, and often took the form of informal discussions about medical ethics and the social dimensions of primary care. Medical schools began to pursue 'humanistic' education more formally from the 1980s onwards, particularly within the context of general practice curricula and with a focus on individual doctor-patient relationships. Overall from the 1950s to the 1990s there was a broad shift in discussions of the human aspects of medical education: from interest in patient communities to individuals; from social concerns to personal characteristics; and from the relatively abstract to the measurable and instrumental. There was no clear shift from 'less' to 'more' humanistic education, but rather a shift in the perceived goals of integrating human aspects of medical education. The human aspects of medicine show the importance of student activism in driving forward community and ethical medicine, and provide an important backdrop to the rise of competencies within general undergraduate education.

Selection and Management of Medical Official during the Yuan Dynasty.

Although the healthcare system of the Yuan Dynasty followed that of the Song Dynasty, there are certain differences between these two dynasties in terms of practices. Including appointing 'Yihus' in 'Zhusehuji' and setting up 'Guanyitijusi' to oversee Yihus, the Yuan Dynasty developed an effective management system for their physicians and, soon after the coronation of Khubilai, built 'Yixue (Medical school)' all over its territories in order to establish an organized and substantial medical training system. Moreover, the Yuan Dynasty not only revived the civil service examination system system between 1314 and 1320 as well as the medical examination system, but also increased the quota for qualification to twice that of Confucian examination in Song. These changes resulted in producing many brilliant people at the time. In the second half of the reign of Emperor Chengzong it was decided that the incompetence of the government healthcare organizations and the abundance of charlatans could not be neglected any longer. Existing policies and systems was limited in educating and training proper physicians, and this problem was not restricted to the field of medicine. The need for new systems that could reform the social order led to the restoration of the civil service examination system. The civil service examination system for Confucianism and for medicine began in 1314 and 1316, respectively. The purpose of the medical examination system was to select medical officials. The medical examination system which started in 1316 had a significant impact on the medicine of the Yuan dynasty for many reasons. Firstly, the qualification to apply to the medical examination did not remain constricted to 'Yixue' but opened to all 'Zhusehuji'; and secondly, the examination system did not have a restriction on the number of applicants was not restricted. The most important aspect of the examination system was that the number of test takers that passed the first test was one hundred and the number of passers of the second test were thirty, which were not low compared to the number of passers of the Confucianism examination. As such, the impact of the medical examination on the Yuan society was substantial. The Confucian examination selected 300 persons to pass the first test. The second test had 100 test takers which was equally divided among the four social classes at 25 percent each. The medical system selected 100 persons in the first test and 30 in the second. What is important is that unlike the Confucian examination system, the medical system was not divided into four classes. Hypothetically, the 30 qualified persons could all be South Chinese. In terms of the number of passers, it was much more promising for the South Chinese to flourish through the medical test than through Confucian examination test. Such facts support the claim that the Yuan Dynasty emphasized the field of medicine compared to the Song Dynasty. Although the Song Dynasty implemented the civil service examination system early on, the medical system was not implemented until 1115, which started with the founding of 'Yixue' across the country and assigning student capacity. During the Song Dynasty, the number of students in the medical system was 15 percent of that in the Confucianism system, and compared to that in Yuan, it raised to 30 percent, which is twofold. The indications of the Yuan Dynasty valuing medicine and making an effort to educate and train medical experts can be seen in the 'Yihu system', 'Guanyitijusi', Yixuetijusi', and medical school as well as the ratio of the medical system capacity.